Department of Architecture
College of Environmental Design
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Module 6: Greek Architecture
Historical Background
Location and Period
LOCATION
Ancient Greek civilization occurred in the area around the Greek mainland, on a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea. The civilization started in cities on the Greek mainland and on islands in the Aegean Sea. Towards the later or Hellenistic period, Greek civilization spread to other far away places including Asia Minor and Northern Africa. Most of the Greek mainland was rocky and barren and therefore bad for agriculture. Most Greeks therefore lived along the coastline or on islands where the soil was good for farming. The Aegean and Mediterranean Seas provided a means of communication and trade with other places.
PERIOD
The periods of ancient Greek history can be divided into four periods as follows:
1100 B. C. to 750 B. C. Greek Dark Ages
750 B. C. to 500 B. C. Archaic Period
5000 B. C. to 323 B. C. Classical Period
323 B. C. to 147 B. C. Hellenistic Period
The classical and archaic period are sometimes collectively referred to as Hellenic period
DARK AGES (1100 to 750 BC)
The Mycenaean people were Greek in Origin. Greek civilization is therefore usually viewed as a continuation of the Mycenaean civilization. The start of the Greek civilization is therefore dated to the end of the Mycenaean civilization in 1100BC. Following the decline of Mycenae, the area around the Greek mainland went into a period of decline that is referred to as the Greek Dark ages. Greece became depopulated with groups of people moving out of mainland Greece towards the islands of the Aegean. Mycenaean and Greek culture dwindled and many cultural elements including writing, art and architectural techniques were lost. Trade with Asia Minor, the Middle East and Egypt, which was at the root of Cretan prosperity stopped entirely. In turn, other people from other less prosperous mountain regions of the north migrated to the more fertile coastline regions. They invade the Greek mainland villages and established their rule. The northerners brought with them a Greek dialect called Dorian, as opposed to the Ionic Greek spoken by the main settlers. The two dialects and cultures later mixed together to create a Hellenic culture, which is at the root of ancient Greek civilization. These two dialects became equated with characteristic architectural forms that evolved in them. In the period following the invasion by the Dorians, there was a shift in lifestyle that produced a sedentary agricultural lifestyle and society. Sedentary lifestyle allowed the Greeks to rediscover urbanized culture that ultimately led to evolution of classical Greek culture.
ARCHAIC PERIOD (750 to 500 BC)
The revival of Greece from the dark ages started during the eight century BC. The Greeks developed a new political form called city states. City states are cities which are ruled as independent nations. The archaic period saw the renewal interest in overseas trading contact. Greek societies that were engaged in trade became rich and by joining with other their neighbors, sometimes forcefully, formed large states. The polis or city state emerged as the natural and desirable political entity. Early examples of these city states include Athens, Corinth, Argos, and Sparta on the mainland, and in the Eastern Aegean, Samos, Chios, Smyrna, Ephesus and Miletus. The archaic period also marked the rise of the aristocratic families or families that are considered noble or of higher status. The archaic period was dominated politically by the leading aristocratic families in each city state acting in concert or squabbling amongst them for supremacy. At times individual aristocrats were able to take advantage of popular dissatisfaction to seize authoritarian power. Such rulers were called tyrants. Such tyrants stimulated the development of the arts through their patronage. The archaic period marked the beginnings of Greek monumental stone sculpture and architecture. Around 546 BC, the rising Persian Empire conquered some Greek city states. The rising threat of the Persian Empire marked the end of the Greek archaic period.
CLASSICAL PERIOD (500 to 323 BC)
The Classical period of ancient Greek history occurred between 500 BC, and 323 BC. The period started with the Greek city states coming into conflict with the rising Persian Empire to the east. The free Greek cities saw the threat that was developing from the Persian Empire and prepared for resistance. A seaborne expedition by the Persians to Athens to install a cooperative tyrant was defeated at Marathon in 490 BC. Under the Persian King Xerxes, Persia attempted a retribution in 479 BC and was defeated by an alliance of the Greek states headed by Sparta. The alliance that was formed to fight the Persian soon transformed into an Empire under the leadership of Athens. Pericles, the ruler of Athens between 444 and 429 BC became a driving force for the development of temple architecture. Pericles used the defense revenue from the alliance for temple building in Athens to thank the Gods. Athens reached its greatest political and cultural heights during the period. The full development of the democratic system of government occurred under Pericles. The Parthenon on the Acropolis at Athens was built. Philosophical schools such as those of Socrates and Plato were founded. Between 431 and 404, Athens entered into a series of wars with Sparta which left it in ruins. The fall of Athens gradually led to political chaos in the whole of Greece. The 4th century saw the rise of Macedonia as a power in the region. The Macedonian king, Philip rapidly extended Macedonian power and wealth. In 338 BC, he defeated a coalition of the major Greek Cities including Athens and Thebes, and created a federation of all Greeks with him as the appointed leader. He proposed a crusade against the Persians but was assassinated before undertaking it. His son Alexander under took the crusade and established himself as the ruler of the former Persian empire. Alexander undertook a lot of military campaigns to extend the Greek empire and founded many new cities such as Alexandria in Egypt. He died in 323 BC without a heir to inherit him. The Death of Alexander marked the end of the classical period ancient Greece civilization.
HELLENISTIC PERIOD (323 to 147 BC)
The Hellenistic period of ancient Greek civilization started with the death of Alexander in 323 BC. When Alexander died, he did not have a heir to inherit him. The Greek empire split into smaller states with Alexander’s generals as their rulers. The period saw the transplanting of Greek art, civic life and culture to newly conquered areas. The period also saw a marked increase in interest in civic buildings. The Hellenistic period ended in 147 BC, when the Roman Empire conquered Greece and incorporated the city states into it.
Social Characteristics and Beliefs
INTRODUCTION
Greek civilization is the first major civilization in Europe. Greek civilization along with the Roman civilization are said to be at the root of current western civilization. They two are referred to as “classical” cultures because of their recognition as the root of western civilization. Greek and Roman architecture are also referred to as classical architecture. Greek civilization started with the mingling of two Greek cultures, the Dorian and the Ionian to create a single Hellenic culture. The two developed a sedentary agricultural and commercial society that ultimately gave birth to the concept of the city state.
SOCIAL AND SOCIETAL ORGANIZATION
The ancient Greeks lived in self governing city-states called "polis." The city-states were small, independent communities which were male-dominated and bound together by race. The ancient Greek world was made up of hundreds of these independent city states. The polis started as a defensible area to which farmers of an area could retreat in the event of an attack as in the Mycenaean citadels. Over time, towns grew around these defensible areas. Every polis was different from another, even though there were similarities between them. They were all bounded by common language and religious beliefs. They all made efforts to preserve their own unique identity, and each city state believed that their state was better than all the other states. The city states were separated from each other and the mountainous nature of the region made travel from one to the other difficult. They often fought with one another. The city of Athens on the Greek mainland is one of the most famous and powerful of the city states. It was a major center for learning and the arts. When city-states were first formed, they were ruled by a few wealthy men. However, they gradually moved towards democracy. Athens developed an early form of democracy. How did they make laws? Only men who were born in Athens were allowed to vote. They did this at public assemblies where upper class citizens discussed and adopted laws that might benefit Athens.
The scale of the polis was small. The philosophers Aristotle and Plato believed that it was necessary for the polis to be of a small size, so that members know each others personal qualities for election to office and to judge them in a court of law. The ideal size of a city state was fixed at 5040 males by Plato. Citizens in any polis were related to one another by blood and so family ties were very strong. The society of the polis had a social hierarchy with citizens at the top, followed by people who are not citizens and finally slaves. Membership in the polis was hereditary and could not be passed on to someone outside the citizen family. Public life was for the male citizen. Women lived a more seclude life, in the privacy of their homes. Greek citizens did not have rights, but duties. In the society of the polis, all citizens were intimately and directly involved in politics, justice, military service, religious ceremonies, intellectual discussion, athletics and artistic pursuits. It was considered reprehensible in the eye of the Greek citizen for one not to carry out his responsibilities; such a citizen was considered an idiot in some city states.
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND SOCIAL SYMBOLISM
In classical Greece, All aspect of life was under the protection of the gods. The God were regarded as all powerful but similar to human beings in their passions, desires and appetite. The ancient Greeks were polytheistic, believing in many different gods and goddesses. The Greeks believed that these gods and goddesses controlled everything, from the waves in the ocean to the winner of a race. All the gods and goddesses had specific roles, controlling one or two major aspects of life. Zeus was, for example, the supreme leader of the gods, Hermes was the messenger of the gods, and Poseidon was the god of the sea. The essential concept in religious practice was that of contract, of obligation and the paying of obligation. Humans call on the gods for protection and make offerings to the gods to secure this. Religion was important to the ancient Greeks because they believed that it would make their lives better while they were living. The Greeks also believed that the gods would take care of them when they died. Religious belief was constantly changing and developing throughout the Greek period. New cults were introduced from time to time.
Temples were the focus of Greek religious worships. Temples were usually built in the cities of the Gods called “Acropolis”. Temples were built in every town and city for one or more god or goddess. The temples were considered as offerings to the gods. Each community was therefore under pressure to make them beautiful as possible. The temples were also considered as the house of the gods. They were not designed for functional use. They usually consist of a large open hall called sanctuary where the statue of the god to whom it is dedicated is kept. The temples were the focus of routine festivals to the gods. The festivals included plays, music, dancing, and then a parade to the temple where they made sacrifices and had a feast. Animals were usually sacrificed as a gift to the gods
ARCHITECTURE IN THE SERVICE OF RELIGION
Greece had plentiful supply of stone for construction, particularly limestone and marble. Clay was also available but timber was scarce particularly in the mainland area. Scarcity of timber imposed restrictions on the width of buildings because of roofing. Hard limestone and marble were exploited for building purposes and they created the distinctive appearance of Greek architecture. Greek construction was of a simple post and lintel or trabeated construction. Their ground plans were always very simple, usually rectangular. With a combination of simple ground plans and trabeated construction, they were able to create amazing buildings. Buildings were constructed by skilled craftsmen who were in demand and traveled from one state to the other for construction work. The process of design and construction had become fixed by the classical period. Designs were done on the ground by measuring out the foundation. The remaining dimensions are calculated in accordance with traditional proportions. Blocks of stone were ordered from the quarry. Blocks were given their final preparation on the building site. Blocks were large and retained their position by their own weight. It was not necessary to fix them together in any way. Roofs were of wood beams and rafters cut to square shapes. Tiles on roofs were not nailed in position but rested under their own weight. Roof pitches were therefore low, usually about 13 to 17 degrees. Carvings and other decorative work were finished when the building is completed.
Greek society was one of the first societies to have established ideals about beauty, particularly in architecture. The Greeks regarded beauty as an attribute of the gods and the conscious pursuit of beauty as a religious exercise. The Greek ideals of beauty included a respect for harmony, temperance, balance and symmetry. Because of the religious nature of Greek society, the search for beauty in architecture focused on the temple. The most important question for architects was the right form of the temple. Temples were conceived as the abode of gods and the task of architecture was to make them beautiful. Temples were also the main ornaments of cities and every city had one. The Greeks convinced themselves that the secrets of beauty lie in ratios or proportions. Buildings were therefore conceived in mathematical terms. Man was viewed by the Greeks as having ideal proportions and is the measure of all things. Greek system of building proportion therefore sought to reflect proportions of the human body. With time, the Greeks were able to refine their system of building proportion, and this resulted in the development of the Greek orders which we will soon explore. Greece architecture was influenced the architecture of Egypt and of areas around the Italian peninsula.
Temples were the most prominent of Greek buildings, particularly during the classical phase of Greek history. They reflected the prominence of religion in the social life of the Greek people. Temples also had a political purpose as they were often built to celebrate civic power and pride of a particular city state. Every city and town had a temple. Greek society also made buildings other than temples. Other Greek buildings evolved gradually responding to the needs of the people with time. The Political systems of the Greek city states depended on gathering. Gathering led to the need for a place where the citizen body might gather to make vital decisions of war and peace. With the growth of towns, the Agora developed to serve as a political, social and commercial place. Gradually a variety to architectural elements made their appearance placed at the edge of the Agora space. By the Hellenistic period, different types of civic buildings had become popular in Greek towns. These included amphitheaters, council halls, public fountains and theatres, gymnasia, schools and libraries and even public baths and lavatories. As these civic buildings emerge, treatment once reserved for temple was extended to them even though on a less grander scale than in the temples
The ancient Greeks were huge sports fans. Every four years, the Greeks held the Olympic Games in the stadium at Olympia. The best athletes in Greece competed in different events. The games were considered a part of religious life, and they began with a sacrifice to the god Zeus. Because the games were religious, anyone who was caught cheating during the games was never allowed to compete again. This is because cheating was considered disrespectful to the gods. Greek society contributed to the earliest development of science and scientific inquiry. Greeks attempted to explain the world through the laws of nature. Science in Ancient Greece was based on logical thinking and mathematics. The Greeks wanted to know more about the world, the heavens and themselves. People studied about the sky, sun, moon, and the planets. Greeks wrote on astronomy and geography. Greeks found out that the earth was round and A Greek person is credited as being the first to measure the circumference of the Earth. The Greeks also made significant contributions to the arts. They made significant contributions in sculpture and painting. They wrote many stories and plays that continue to be performed today.
